7.3. The Digital Circuit-Switched
Telephone Network
For over a hundred years, telephone networks
were exclusively circuit-switched. What this meant was that for
every telephone call made, a dedicated connection was established
between the two endpoints, with a fixed amount of bandwidth
allocated to that circuit. Creating such a network was costly, and
where distance was concerned, using that network was costly as
well. Although we are all predicting the end of the
circuit-switched network, many people still use it every day, and
it really does work rather well.
7.3.1. Circuit Types
In the PSTN, there are many different sizes of
circuits serving the various needs of the network. Between the
central office and a subscriber, one or more analog
circuits , or a few dozen channels
delivered over a digital circuit, generally suffice. Between PSTN
offices (and with larger customers), fiber-optic circuits are
generally used.
7.3.1.1. The humble DS-0, the
foundation of it all
Since the standard method of digitizing a
telephone call is to record an 8-bit sample 8,000 times per second,
we can see that a PCM-encoded telephone circuit will need a bandwidth of 64,000 bps. This
64-kbps channel is referred to as a DS-0 (that's Dee-Ess-Zero). The
DS-0 is the fundamental building block of all digital
telecommunications circuits.
Even the ubiquitous analog circuit is sampled
into a DS-0 as soon as possible. Sometimes this happens where your
circuit terminates at the central office, and sometimes well
before.
7.3.1.2. T-carrier circuits
The venerable T-1 is one of the more recognized
digital telephony terms. A T-1 is a digital circuit consisting of
24 DS-0s multiplexed together into a 1.544-Mbps bit
stream. This bit stream is properly
defined as a DS-1. Voice is
encoded on a T-1 using the m-law
companding algorithm.
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The European version of the T-1 was developed by
the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications
Administrations (CEPT), and was first referred to as a
CEPT-1. It is now called an
E-1.
The E-1 is comprised of 32 DS-0s, but the method
of PCM encoding is differentE-1s use A-law companding. This means
that connecting between an E-1-based network and a T-1-based
network will always require a transcoding step. Note that an E-1,
although it has 32 channels, is also considered a DS-1.
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The various other T-carriers (T-2, T-3, and T-4)
are multiples of the T-1, each based on the humble DS-0. Table 7-2 illustrates
the relationships between the different T-carrier circuits .
Table 7-2. T-carrier circuits
Carrier
|
Equivalent data bitrate
|
Number of DS-0s
|
Data bitrate
|
T-1
|
24 DS-0s
|
24
|
1.544 Mbps
|
T-2
|
4 T-1s
|
96
|
6.312 Mbps
|
T-3
|
7 T-2s
|
672
|
44.736 Mbps
|
T-4
|
6 T-3s
|
4032
|
274.176 Mbps
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At densities above T-3, it is very uncommon to
see a T-carrier circuit. For these speeds, optical carrier (OC)
circuits may be used.
7.3.1.3. SONET and OC circuits
The Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) was
developed out of a desire to take the T-carrier system to the next
technological level: fiber optics. SONET is based on the bandwidth
of a T-3 (44.736Mbps), with a slight overhead making it 51.84 Mbps.
This is referred to as an OC-1 or
STS-1. As Table 7-3 shows, all higher-speed OC
circuits are multiples of this base rate.
Table 7-3. OC circuits
Carrier
|
Equivalent data bitrate
|
Number of DS-0s
|
Data bitrate
|
OC-1
|
1 DS-3 (plus overhead)
|
672
|
51.840 Mbps
|
OC-3
|
3 DS-3s
|
2016
|
155.520 Mbps
|
OC-12
|
12 DS-3s
|
8064
|
622.080 Mbps
|
OC-48
|
48 DS-3s
|
32256
|
2488.320 Mbps
|
OC-192
|
192 DS-3s
|
129024
|
9953.280 Mbps
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SONET was created in an effort to standardize
optical circuits, but due to its high cost, coupled with the value
offered by many newer schemes, such as Dense Wave Division
Multiplexing (DWDM), there is some controversy surrounding its
future.
7.3.2. Digital Signaling
Protocols
As with any circuit, it is not enough for the
circuits used in the PSTN to just carry (voice) data between
endpoints. Mechanisms must also be provided to pass information
about the state of the channel between each endpoint. (Disconnect
and answer supervision are two examples of basic signaling that
might need to take place; Caller ID is an example of a more complex
form of signaling.)
7.3.2.1. Channel Associated Signaling
(CAS)
Also known as robbed-bit signaling, CAS is what
you will use to transmit voice on a T-1 when ISDN is not available.
Rather than taking advantage of the power of the digital circuit, CAS simulates analog channels. CAS
signaling works by stealing bits from the audio stream for
signaling purposes. Although the effect on audio quality is not
really noticeable, the lack of a powerful signaling channel limits
your flexibility.
When configuring a CAS T-1, the signaling
options at each end must match. E&M (Ear & Mouth or recEive
& transMit) signaling is generally
preferred, as it offers the best supervision.
CAS is very rarely used on PSTN circuits
anymore, due to the superiority of ISDN-PRI. One of the limitations
of CAS is that it does not allow the dynamic assignment of channels
to different functions. Also, Caller ID information (which may not
even be supported) has to be sent as part of the audio stream. CAS
is commonly used on the T-1 link in channel banks, although PRI is
sometimes available (and preferable).
7.3.2.2. ISDN
The Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN )
has been around for over 20 years. Because it separates the
channels that carry the traffic (the bearer channels, or
B-channels) from the channel that carries the signaling information
(the D-channel), ISDN allows for the delivery of a much richer set
of features than CAS. In the beginning, ISDN promised to deliver
much the same sort of functionality that the Internet has given us,
including advanced capabilities for voice, video, and data
transfer.
Unfortunately, rather than ratifying a standard
and sticking to it, the respective telecommunications manufacturers
all decided to add their own tweaks to the protocol, in the belief
that their versions were superior and would eventually dominate the
market. As a result, getting two ISDN-compliant systems to connect
to each other was often a painful and expensive task. The carriers
who had to implement and support this expensive technology in turn
priced it so that it was not rapidly adopted. Currently, ISDN is
rarely used for much more than basic trunkingin fact, the acronym
ISDN has become a joke in the industry: "It Still Does
Nothing."
Having said that, ISDN has become quite popular
for trunking, and it is now (mostly) standards-compliant. If you
have a PBX with more than a dozen lines connected to the PSTN,
there's a very good chance that you'll be running an
ISDN-PRI circuit. Also, in places
where DSL and cable access to the Internet are not available (or
too expensive), an ISDN-BRI circuit might provide you with an
affordable 128-kbps connection. In much of North America, the use
of ISDN -BRI for Internet connectivity
has been deprecated in favor of DSL and cable modems, but it's
still very popular in other parts of the world.
7.3.2.2.1. ISDN-BRI/BRA
Basic Rate Interface (or Basic Rate Access) is
the flavor of ISDN designed to service small endpoints such as
workstations.
The BRI flavor of the ISDN specification is
often referred to simply as "ISDN," but this can be a source of
confusion, as ISDN is a protocol, not a type of circuit (not to
mention that PRI circuits are also correctly referred to as
ISDN!).
A Basic Rate ISDN circuit consists of two
64-kbps B-channels controlled by a 16-kbps D-channel, for a total
of 144 kbps.
Basic Rate ISDN has been a source of much
confusion during its life, due to problems with standards
compliance, technical complexity, and poor documentation. Still, in
European countries ISDN-BRI circuits remain quite a popular way of
connecting to the PSTN.
7.3.2.2.2. ISDN-PRI/PRA
The Primary Rate Interface (or Primary Rate
Access) flavor of ISDN is used to provide ISDN service over larger
network connections. A Primary Rate ISDN circuit uses a single DS-0
channel as a signaling link (the D-channel); the remaining channels
serve as B-channels.
In North America, Primary Rate ISDN is commonly
carried on one or more T-1 circuits. Since a T-1 has 24 channels, a
North American PRI circuit typically consists of 23 B-channels and
1 D-channel. For this reason, PRI is often referred to as
23B+D.
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In Europe, a 32-channel E-1 circuit is used, so
a Primary Rate ISDN circuit is referred to as 30B+D (the final
channel is used for synchronization).
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Primary Rate ISDN is very popular, due to its
technical benefits and generally competitive pricing. If you
believe you will require more than a dozen or so PSTN lines, you
should look into Primary Rate ISDN pricing.
From a technical perspective, ISDN-PRI is always
preferable to CAS.
7.3.2.3. Signaling System 7
SS7 is the
signaling system used by carriers. It is conceptually similar to
ISDN, and it is instrumental in providing a mechanism for the
carriers to transmit the additional information ISDN endpoints
typically need to pass. However, the technology of SS7 is different
from that of ISDNone big difference is that SS7 runs on a
completely separate network from the actual trunks that carry the
calls.
SS7 support in Asterisk is on the horizon, as
there is much interest in making Asterisk compatible with the
carrier networks. An open source version of SS7 (http://www.openss7.org) exists, but
work is still needed for full SS7 compliance, and as of this
writing it is not known whether this will be integrated with
Asterisk. Another promising source of SS7 support comes from
Sangoma Technologies, who offer SS7 functionality in many of their
products.
It should be noted that adding support for SS7
in Asterisk is not going to be as simple as writing a proper
driver. Connecting equipment to an SS7 network will not be possible
without that equipment having passed an extremely rigorous
certification processes. Even then, it seems doubtful that any
traditional carrier is going to be in a hurry to allow such a thing
to happen.
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